Identifying Different Perspectives on Individualism (Mar 10, 2020)

      In his essay titled "Self-Reliance," Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote that "to believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart, is true for all men, - that is genius” (236).  The individualism referred to by Emerson, the philosophy that places emphasis on the self rather than the collective, was and remains a significant component of American Renaissance literature as well as American culture.  While Emerson touted the individualistic ideas illustrated in “Self-Reliance” as an ultimate guide to self-fulfillment, this concept was not one that was accepted unanimously.  Alexis de Tocqueville, a French aristocrat, rejected progressive ideas regarding individualism to instead warn about its dangers: “Individualism proceeds from erroneous judgment more than from depraved feelings; it originates as much in deficiencies of mind as in perversity of heart” (Tocqueville).  The widely divisive philosophy opened a gateway to many interpretations; some of those falling somewhere between Emerson and Tocqueville, such as in the works of Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe.  Rather than blindly accepting Emerson’s positive portrayal of individualism, Hawthorne and Poe used the philosophy as commentary on the darker aspects of human nature. 

            The components that constitute Emerson’s favorable idea of individualism: nonconformity, inconsistency, and absolute trust in the self to guide and define, are ones that are evaluated more cautiously and solemnly by Hawthorne and Poe.  Emerson urged his readers to denounce the popularity of conformity in favor of embracing a philosophy that empowered each man to take charge of his destiny by relying on his own goodness and intuition, regardless of whether that intuition was agreeable by the masses: “Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist…Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind” (Emerson 238).  A man constrained by conformity cares too much of the opinion of others, that he deprives himself of his true nature to abide by the consistency and order demanded of him by his society.  But Emerson insisted an innate “divine Providence” (237) wielded to fruition by a courageous man would lead him down a greater, original, and honest path.  It is imperative for a reader to comprehend and analyze Emerson’s definition of individualism, and the way he indicates each component as a positive influence on the individual, to then compare it and critique it from the perspective of his contemporaries.  Though Emerson acknowledges there are hardships that come with becoming a self-reliant individual, his opinion of this philosophy is predominantly optimistic in its ability to elevate the self.  While the same philosophy is addressed in their works, Hawthorne and Poe were inclined to look at individualism more critically and focus on how the dark complexity of human nature complicates Emerson’s view.  They also more deeply considered the consequences that come with individualism, both from the inherent evil in man and from the backlash these individuals faced from society. 

            Edgar Allan Poe’s evaluation of individualism takes more inspiration from Tocqueville than Emerson, straying from the optimistic perspective of the aforementioned transcendentalist to consider the more cynical and dismal aspects of human consciousness.  In his literature, Poe demonstrated how the tainted and depraved nature of man can condemn him to madness rather than free him.  Poe acknowledged the fatal follies of man and the mind directly in his essay “The Philosophy of Composition,” categorizing the human species as that “of despair which delights in self-torture” (Poe 706).  The shadow side of the human conscious revels in the dark and dispiriting, equally fascinated with that which depresses and terrifies.  That fact is attributed to what Poe believed was, in part, the very success of his poem “The Raven.”  Poe, in this way, makes the human being more complete and complex a character; despite all the good a man can be capable of, he is just as well capable of suffering, of desire for violence, of the macabre, and of evil.  Delving deep into the dark human psyche, Poe revealed that appreciated values of individualism such as independence and solitude can in fact be detrimental when wrongly employed.  This can be seen in Poe’s “The Man of the Crowd” in which he used city life to commentate on the disdainful economic and social consequences of individualism.  City life promotes individualism through its lack of close-knit community and collectivism, making its dwellers often feel alienated despite being part of a crowd: “Others…feeling in solitude on account of the very denseness of the company around” (Poe 657).  Having made this connection apparent, Poe subsequently demonstrated what this widespread isolation resulted in: “It was the most noisome quarter of London, where everything wore the worst impress of the most deplorable poverty, and of the most desperate crime” (661).  The lack of brotherhood and moral responsibility to one another in “The Man of the Crowd” contributed to its grim reality; the cruel apathy of individuals, too consumed in independent and selfish affairs, led to the continued destruction of this city. 

The downfalls of individualism in “The Man of the Crowd” are also showcased by the strange behavior of its narrator, whose contentment with isolation and people watching turns into a nearly unrelenting fixation on one old passerby: “I felt singularly aroused, startled, fascinated…Then came a craving desire to keep the man in view – to know more of him” (Poe 659).  While this unknown narrator may have conducted himself in a way that spoke truly of his nature, as individualism typically demands, it is hardly questionable that his actions were an oddity.  The desire he chose to pursue could not be considered beneficial or healthy – nor could it be considered greatness.  The unhinged, unyielding intuition that begged to follow a strange man throughout the night was not one that allowed the narrator any self-satisfaction or fulfilment either, proving a pointed flaw in Emerson’s own stance on individualism: “I grew wearied unto death…It will be in vain to follow; for I shall learn no more of him” (Poe 662).   It is well within human nature to act against one’s own best interests, even under the guise of gratifying one’s urges.  Poe utilized these examples of mental instability, alienation, and societal impacts to exemplify the dangers of viewing individualism as simply a positive philosophy. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne, like Poe, viewed the idealistic version of individualism as fundamentally lacking in its appraisal of human nature.  Hawthorne concerned himself less with glorifying humankind and more with investigating the duality of humankind; the declaration of man’s divinity through God must also implicate man’s capability for the unsacred and the ungodly through the devil.  And, like Poe, Hawthorne often created stories and characters that revolved around inherited sin and evil that adversely impacted man and his choices.  In one of his most famous works, The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne showed an in-depth display of the consequences that come with being an individual who rebels against his or her society.  Hester Prynne, the protagonist of Hawthorne’s tale, was condemned to public ridicule and outcasted after committing the sin of adultery in a Puritan society.  Her defiance to adhere to the Puritan values over her own desires and her ability to maintain composure in the face of adversity display what a true individual Hester Prynne was among the hive-minded beliefs of her peers: “With a burning blush, and yet a haughty smile, and a glance that would not be abashed, looked around at her townspeople and neighbors” (Hawthorne 455).  But following her own path and intuition did Hester Prynne no favors.  She was branded with a scarlet letter A; with one signifier of her sin, Hester’s character, her morality, her parenting skills, and her salvation were all put to question by all who laid eyes on her: “It had the effect of a spell, taking her out of the ordinary relations with humanity, and inclosing her in a sphere by herself” (Hawthorne 455).  Through Hester’s struggles, Hawthorne made it clear that the masses’ influence and power over the individual drastically affect his or her way of life.  Despite how dedicated one can be to glory and divinity, one cannot achieve it if he or she is repressed or oppressed by their environment.  Though Hester is an important figure whose plights are undeserving for the “crime” she has committed, one could also see her depiction as Hawthorne’s acknowledgment that an individual given the freedom to choose their path can make flawed and tainted decisions. 

This is not to say, however, that Hawthorne believed individualism was to the absolute detriment of society nor that it had no redeeming qualities in the manner that Tocqueville did.  Tocqueville viewed individualism as a scourge that would dismantle and destroy the structure of society in favor of isolation and selfishness: “They owe nothing to any man, they expect nothing from any man; they acquire the habit of always considering themselves as standing alone” (Tocqueville).  But Hawthorne’s Hester Prynne directly challenged this notion.  Despite her isolation from the same townspeople who had initially persecuted her, Hester Prynne devoted her life to serving the same community that once excommunicated her.  She never turned away from the opportunity to help someone in need and her kindness was rewarded by the townspeople’s forgiveness: “Such helpfulness was found in her, - so much power to do, and power to sympathize, - that many people refused to interpret the scarlet A by its original signification.  They said that it meant Able” (Hawthorne 514).  While Hawthorne sought to explore the darker sides of individualism, he also conceded in man’s goodness and how charitable acts of individualism can actually forge a better sense of community.  Furthermore, Hester Prynne’s influence as an individual did eventually pave the way for greatness in the form of conversations regarding gender equality.  Her life and her actions inspired others to think more critically about the repressive patriarchy that oppressed them: “She assured them, too, of her firm belief, that, at some brighter period…a new truth would be revealed, in order to establish the whole relation between man and woman on a surer ground for mutual happiness” (Hawthorne 568).  In these ways, Hawthorne’s interpretation of individualism embodied and disputed claims from both Emerson and Tocqueville.

Individualism continues to be a recognized pillar and debated factor of American culture.  Like Emerson, some romanticize it to be a system that empowers each person to pave their own way in the world.  Others align themselves with Tocqueville and insist on the injurious impacts individualism leaves in its wake.  But there is, arguably, more merit in Hawthorne and Poe who sought to show the duality of human nature and humans’ proclivity in being complicated characters who are neither all good nor all bad. 

 

 

Works Cited

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. “Self-Reliance.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, by Robert S. Levine et al., 9th ed., B, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. “The Scarlet Letter.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, by Robert S. Levine et al., 9th ed., B, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Man of the Crowd.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, by Robert S. Levine et al., 9th ed., B, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Philosophy of Composition.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, by Robert S. Levine et al., 9th ed., B, W. W. Norton & Company, 2017.

Tocqueville, Alexis de. “Of Individualism in Democratic Countries.” Democracy in America, vol 2., 1840.